Summary

Outline

1.      Trends in linguistics theory

a.       Beginnings of modern linguistics

b.      Characterization of linguistics today

c.       The view of language in modern linguistics

d.      Aspects of language study

e.       Direction in linguistics

f.       School of Thought

g.      Transformational generative grammar and structuralism

h.      Toward a more semantic and more social view of language

2.      Linguistic theory and language teaching: emergence of a relationship

a.       Uncertain beginnings

b.      The confident application

c.       Alternatives to American structuralism

3.      Linguistics theory and language teaching: reassessment and current status

a.       Reassessment of the relationship

b.      The concepts of a pedagogical grammar

c.       The emancipation of educational linguistics: 1970-80

d.      Review

Summary

1.      Trends in linguistics theory

a.  Beginnings of modern linguistics

             Modern linguistics emerged in the late eighteenth century when language in general and languages other than the great classical ones, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, became object of scientific enquiry. Then, in the twentieth century, it linguistics 3s was an independent study.

b.    Characterization of linguistics today

Linguistics is:

1.      A theoretical science which means it formulates explanations which are designed to account for the phenomena of language.

2.      An empirical science which means it makes detailed observations on particular languages to confirm or refute generalizations.

Thus, the characteristics of linguistics today are not only a theoretical but also a descriptive discipline.

c.       The view of language in modern linguistics

      In principles, linguistics is concerned with all languages and every aspects of language. Meanwhile, there are difference view between older school traditions and modern linguistics in stressing the greater worth between spoken and written mode. For modern linguistics, speech gain more attention than written form. The reason is speech is the natural or primary medium in which language is manifest.

 Language Varieties

                                    Different situations, interests, occupations, or social roles demand different uses of language. A number of concepts are employed in linguistics-especially in that branch of linguistics which relates the study of language to the study of society, sociolinguistics-to indicate these functional variations and choices within one language: style, register, domain, and code.

            Language as a system or structure

                                    A language is a highly integrated system’ (Langacker 1972: 18). In that sense all modern linguistics, regardless of the particular school of thought, is ‘structural’. A linguistic description identifies and explains the units or constituent elements that make up the language and shows how they interrelate and interact.

            Language and parole

                        A distinction of great importance to modern linguistics-and also to language teaching theory-that, like the previous set of terms, was first developed in Saussure’s course, is that between language as a system or structure, langue, and the use of that language in utterances, parole.

d.      Aspects of language study

The areas of language study can be listed as follow:

1)   Phonetics and Phonology, deal with speech sounds

2)   Lexicology, semantics, and morphology, deal with words.

3)   Syntax, deals with sentences.

4)   Semantics, deals with meaning.

5)   Discourse analysis, deals with text (dialogue, narrative, and form)

e.       Direction in linguistics

There are two main directions in linguistics:

1)   The detailed study of the different branches of specializations.

2)   The study of language as a whole.

f.       School of Thought

1)   Bloomfield and American structuralism

                        Bloomfield had great influence in American structuralism. His predominant concern was to establish linguistics truly as a science of language through two tasks (a) to delimit the role of linguistics in relation to other sciences, and (b) to develop the principles and concepts of linguistics into a well balanced and unified structure.

                        Bloomfield advisedly restricted the object of linguist enquiry to the formal characteristics of linguistics utterences. Thus, the linguist deals pnly with speech signal. He also wanted linguistics to become an empirical, descriptive science.

                        In the forties and fifties, American structural linguists list offer listed over four hundred and fifty studies. Thus, it was a period of confidence for structuralism and greatly influenced language teaching.

2)   Neo-Firthian theory

Halliday was one of prominent figures in this theory. He presents a synthesis of concepts which aimed being theoretically powerful and the same time useful to apply in the description of natural languages. In his view a linguistics description is on the three levels: substance (phonic or graphic), form, and context.

3)   Transformational generative grammar (TG)

The prominent figure in this approach is Noam Chomsky. He interested in linguistics analysis. He had introduced the notion of deep and surface structure which became an important principle in modern syntax.

g.      Transformational generative grammar and structuralism

There are some important issues derived from the rejection by TG to structuralism in accordance with the view of language in language teaching, such as:

1)   TG recognizes language as a rule-governed system. Thus, the rules should be internalized in the process of teaching and learning. While, structuralism argued that language as merely a collection of habits.

2)   According to structural linguists language descriptions were based on the analysis of a given corpus. While TG concerns with native speakers’ form, i.e., what he considers as grammatical or rejects as ungrammatical (the native speakers’ competence).

3)   Structural linguist only concern with surface structure. Consequently pattern practice in language teaching was often criticized misleading. While TG emphasized the difference between deep and surface structure that was believed more effective and can provide better insight into language.

4)   Structuralism emphasis on formal aspects structural and neglect meaning. While TG incorporated semantic element.\

5)   TG focus on native speaker’s competence.

6)   TG emphasis on the productive or creative character of language in which structuralism lack.

7)   Structuralism was accused of over-emphasizing the differences between language and the unique characteristics of each language. While TG concerns with the common elements, the universal, underlying all natural languages.

h.      Toward a more semantic and more social view of language

New approaches began to develop, some linguists’ studies then tried to investigate the relations between language and context and between language and language users.

i.        Conclusion

The development of a science of language had created a new situation for language pedagogy in the present century. It showed that there is a close relationship between language teaching theory and linguistics. In other hands, there is also a difference between a linguist’s role and an educator’s role. A linguists views languages in general while an educators views languages in practical objective because he committees to the teaching of particular languages.

2.     Linguistic theory and language teaching: emergence of a relationship

a.       Uncertain beginnings

           Some attempts had been done to make linguistics contribution became more and more accepted in language pedagogy. Gouin’s attempt, for example, to understand the nature of language and to base teaching techniques on his interpretations had shown a relationship between language theory and language teaching.

b.      The confident application

           In the early of World War II, linguistics became important component in a language teaching theory. Many American linguists involved in the preparation of texts in language teaching.

The role of American application

                                    There are five slogans to express more a pedagogical than a linguistic principle:

1.      Language Is speech, not writing.

2.      A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks

3.      Languages are different.

4.      A language is a set of habits.

5.      Teach the language, not about the language.

           The main impact of linguistics theory to language pedagogy also can be seen in (1) language description as an essential basis of the language curriculum and corpus selection (for example, francais fundamental), (2) emphasis on linguistics forms reflected in the division into phonological and grammatical exercises and gradation of linguistic item, (3) contrastive analysis as a principles of curriculum development, (4) primary of speech, (5) linguistic pattern as unit of instruction and of testing.

c.       Alternatives to American structuralism

           There two major works which offer alternatives to American structuralism, that are, The Linguistics Sciences and Language Teaching by Halliday, McIntosh, and Stevens (1964) and Language Teaching Analysis by Mackey (1965). Halliday et al criticized that structuralism are unsatisfactory because they neglected the contextual meaning and failed to present an integrated picture of a language as a whole. They argued meaning cannot be isolated from form. Meanwhile, Mackey concerned not only with linguistics theory in relation to language teaching but also at developing a broad and systematic framework for an analysis of language teaching. This framework consists of three interrelated areas: (1) language, (2) text or ‘method’ and (3) teaching.

d.      Review

During the period 1940-1960 the idea that language teaching theory implies a theory of language and that linguistics had a direct contribution to make to language pedagogy became more and more accepted which was proven by some impact of linguistics theory in language teaching at that time.  

3.      Linguistics theory and language teaching: reassessment and current status

a.       Reassessment of the relationship

In the stage of reassessment of the relationship between linguistics and language pedagogy, there are some changes, such as:

1)   A clearer definition of specific contributions to be expected from linguistics, i.e., (a) insights into the nature of language and (b) empirical data on different languages.

2)   The recognition of the need for a buffer or filter between linguistics theory and educational practice of which the pedagogical grammar is an outstanding example.

3)   Awareness of the inter-disciplinary character of language pedagogy that linguistics cannot be regarded as the discipline to sustain practice by itself.

b.      The concepts of pedagogical grammar

The net outcome for language pedagogy of this stage of re-assessment of linguistics has been (1) a clearer definition of specific contributions to be expected from linguistics, i.e. (a) insights into the nature of language and (b) empirical data on different languages; (2) the recognition of the need for a buffer or filter between linguistic theory and educational practice of which the pedagogical grammar is an outstanding example; and (3) awareness of the inter-disciplinary character of language pedagogy: linguistics cannot be regarded as the discipline to sustain practice by itself.

c.       The emancipation of educational linguistics: 1970-80

During the past decade new generations of educational linguists became active. They are expert in both linguistics and pedagogy. These experts, then, are able to mediate between theoretical linguistics and language pedagogy. Some scholar who took role in this stage such as Oller (1970), a number of linguists in Britain and other European countries , group of scholars in the Council of Europe Modern Languages Project, and Widdowson.

d.      Review

The relations between linguistics and language pedagogy have moved through different phases. From about 1940 there was an increasing awereness among linguists of language teaching and among language teachers linguistics. A notion to mediate between theoretical linguists and language pedagogy has received attention. This notion then can be realized by the presence of educational linguist who are able to fulfill the mediating function and to influence pedagogy as well as theoretical linguistics.